Organic farming: principles, standards and certification
What organic farming allows and forbids, the IFOAM principles, conversion periods, certification and PGS, organic yields, and a nitrogen budget sum.
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Organic farming is a system of production that relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than on synthetic fertilisers, synthetic pesticides and genetically modified organisms. It is also a legally protected label: in most major markets, food can only be sold as "organic" if it was produced to a defined standard and checked by an approved body.
Organic agriculture is now practised in almost every country. According to the yearly survey by FiBL and IFOAM – Organics International, close to 100 million hectares were managed organically in 2022, about 2 per cent of the world's agricultural land, by more than four million producers. Much of the area is extensive grazing land, especially in Australia, while the largest numbers of farmers are in Asia and Africa. Organic principles, standards, conversion and certification are a standard exam topic in agronomy, soil science and sustainable agriculture.
Roots and principles
Organic farming grew out of several early twentieth-century movements: Rudolf Steiner's biodynamic agriculture (1924), Albert Howard's work on composting and soil health, drawing on his years in India, and the soil-centred ideas of Eve Balfour and J. I. Rodale. IFOAM (the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, now IFOAM – Organics International) was founded in 1972.
IFOAM sets out four principles of organic agriculture:
- Health: sustain and enhance the health of soil, plants, animals, people and the planet as one and indivisible.
- Ecology: work with living ecological systems and cycles, emulate them and help sustain them.
- Fairness: build relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.
- Care: manage in a precautionary and responsible way to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.
What standards allow and forbid
Details differ between standards, but the core rules are similar worldwide.
| Generally prohibited | Generally allowed |
|---|---|
| synthetic nitrogen, and soluble phosphate and potash fertilisers | manure, compost, green manures, legumes, rock phosphate, some mined minerals |
| synthetic pesticides and herbicides | listed natural or traditional products, such as sulphur, copper (restricted), Bt, some botanicals, soaps |
| genetically modified organisms and their products | conventional and organic seed of ordinary varieties, organic seed where available |
| growth regulators and routine antibiotics for livestock | veterinary treatment when animals are sick, with longer withdrawal periods |
| irradiation and many synthetic food additives | a short list of approved processing aids and additives |
Livestock standards add requirements for organic feed, outdoor access, space allowances and animal welfare.
International reference standards include the Codex Alimentarius guidelines for organically produced foods (CAC/GL 32-1999) and the IFOAM standards. National and regional regulations, such as the European Union's organic regulation (EU) 2018/848, the United States National Organic Program, Japan's JAS organic standard and India's National Programme for Organic Production, are what apply legally in each market. Countries sign equivalence agreements so that products certified under one system can be sold as organic in another.
How organic farms manage soil and pests
Soil fertility comes mainly from:
- Legumes in rotations, as green manures and as cover crops, which supply most of the nitrogen in many organic systems;
- manure and compost recycled from livestock and crop residues;
- diverse rotations with leys, deep-rooted crops and cover crops;
- permitted mineral amendments, such as lime, rock phosphate and gypsum, guided by soil tests.
Pests, diseases and weeds are managed by prevention first:
- rotation, resistant varieties, sowing dates, spacing and sanitation;
- habitat for natural enemies, biological control agents and pheromones;
- mechanical and thermal weeding, mulches and competitive crops;
- only then permitted products. Even these are restricted: in the EU, for example, copper is limited to an average of 4 kg per hectare per year, because copper accumulates in soil.
Conversion and certification
A farm cannot become organic overnight. It must go through a conversion period, managed to organic standards without being able to sell products as organic:
- usually about two years before sowing for annual crops and grassland;
- usually about three years before harvest for perennial crops;
- in the United States, land must have had no prohibited substances applied for three years before harvest.
Third-party certification is the standard route: an accredited certification body inspects the farm at least once a year, reviews records of inputs, sales and field history, and may take samples. Smallholders often certify together through grower groups with an internal control system, which cuts costs.
Participatory guarantee systems (PGS), endorsed by IFOAM, are locally focused alternatives in which farmers, consumers and others check each other's farms. They are cheaper and suit local markets, and several countries recognise them for domestic sales, though usually not for export.
Yields, benefits and trade-offs
- Yields: large meta-analyses found organic yields about 19 to 25 per cent lower on average than conventional yields, with wide variation: the gap is smaller for legumes and perennials and under good management and diverse rotations, and larger for cereals and some vegetables, often because nitrogen supply limits growth.
- Environment: organic farms generally have more biodiversity on the farm and higher soil organic matter, and use no synthetic pesticides. Per unit of product, though, lower yields can mean that land use, and sometimes nitrogen losses and greenhouse gas emissions, are similar or higher.
- Economics: price premiums often make organic farming profitable despite lower yields and higher labour, but premiums depend on markets and certification costs.
A nitrogen budget for an organic wheat crop
A wheat crop needs about 120 kg of available nitrogen per hectare for the target yield. The previous crop was a two-year clover ley, which local trials show supplies about 70 kg/ha of available N to the following crop.
The farmer wants to cover the remaining 50 kg/ha with compost containing 1.2 per cent N on a fresh-weight basis, of which about 15 per cent becomes available in the first year.
- Total N per tonne of compost = 1,000 kg × 0.012 = 12 kg.
- Available N per tonne in the first year = 12 × 0.15 = 1.8 kg.
- Compost needed = 50 ÷ 1.8 ≈ 28 t/ha.
That is a lot of compost to make, haul and spread, which is why organic systems rely so heavily on legumes. The rest of the compost's nitrogen is released slowly over later years, building soil organic matter, and its phosphorus and potassium also count in the budget. Availability figures vary widely with the material and conditions.
Key points
- Organic farming excludes synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, GMOs and routine antibiotics, and relies on ecological processes; "organic" is a legally protected label.
- IFOAM's four principles: health, ecology, fairness and care.
- About 100 million hectares, around 2 per cent of agricultural land, were organic in 2022.
- Fertility comes from legumes, manure, compost and rotations; pest control works from prevention to permitted inputs.
- Conversion usually takes about two years for annual crops and three years for perennials; certification is by third-party inspection, grower groups or PGS.
- Organic yields average about 19–25 per cent lower, with wide variation; nitrogen is often the limit.
What the exams ask
- School-leaving and entrance papers: definition, principles, and advantages and limitations of organic farming.
- Degree and research-fellowship entrances: IFOAM principles, Codex guidelines, conversion periods, certification and PGS, organic nutrient sources and their nutrient content, and permitted inputs.
- Professional and policy examinations: organic standards and equivalence, comparing organic and conventional systems, and nutrient budgets for organic farms.
Described in general terms: the kind of examination, not a past paper. Laisha never reproduces exam questions.
Questions people ask
Can organic farmers use any pesticide?
Only products on the permitted list of their standard, usually natural or traditional substances, and generally only when prevention is not enough. Some, such as copper, are restricted in amount.
Is organic food free of residues?
Not always. Drift, contaminated soils and permitted products can leave traces. Surveys generally find residues of synthetic pesticides much less often in organic produce than in conventional produce.
Can a farm be partly organic?
Many standards allow organic and non-organic units on one farm if they are clearly separated and recorded, though some restrict growing the same crop both ways to avoid mixing.
Sources
- Willer, H. et al. (eds) The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2024. FiBL and IFOAM – Organics International, 2024.
- IFOAM – Organics International. Principles of Organic Agriculture. 2005.
- Codex Alimentarius Commission. Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods (CAC/GL 32-1999).
- Seufert, V., Ramankutty, N. and Foley, J. A. "Comparing the yields of organic and conventional agriculture." Nature 485, 229–232 (2012).
- Ponisio, L. C. et al. "Diversification practices reduce organic to conventional yield gap." Proceedings of the Royal Society B 282, 20141396 (2015).
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